Kodi Kuyang’anitsitsa Zinthu Zosaoneka Kumavumbula Chiyani?

KODI chimachitika n’chiyani anthu akagwiritsa ntchito njira zatsopano kuti azindikire zinthu zobisika, ndi kuona zimene sakanatha kuziona pachiyambi? Akatero angadziŵe zina mwa zinthu zimene m’mbuyo sizinkadziŵika.—Onani bokosi lili pamunsipa.

Poyamba anthu ankakhulupirira kuti dziko lapansi lili pakati pa chilengedwe chonse. Koma kenaka pogwiritsa ntchito chida choonera zinthu zakuthambo chotchedwa telesikopu anaona kuti mapulaneti onse, kuphatikizapo dziko, amazungulira dzuŵa. Posachedwapa, chifukwa cha kutulukira makina oonera tinthu tating’ono kwambiri otchedwa maikulosikopu, anthu apenda tizidutswa tating’ono kwambiri timene timapanga zinthu totchedwa ma atomu ndipo aona mmene mitundu ina ya ma atomu ameneŵa imaphatikizirana ndi inzake n’kupanga tizidutswa totchedwa mamolekyu.

Tiyeni tione zimene zimakhala m’molekyu ya madzi, amene ali chinthu chofunika kwambiri m’moyo. Chifukwa cha mmene anapangidwira, ma atomu aŵiri a mpweya wotchedwa hayidilojeni amaphatikana ndi atomu imodzi ya mpweya wotchedwa okusijeni m’njira yodabwitsa zedi ndipo zikatere amasanduka molekyu ya madzi. Mamolekyu otere alipo mabiliyoni ambiri m’dontho limodzi chabe lamadzi! Kodi tingaphunzirepo chiyani pofufuza molekyu ya madzi ndi kuona zimene imachita m’mikhalidwe yosiyanasiyana?

 Kudabwitsa kwa Madzi

Ngakhale kuti dontho limodzi lamadzi limaoneka lodelereka, madzi ndi chinthu chovuta kwambiri kuchimvetsetsa. N’chifukwa chake Dr. John Emsley, wolemba za sayansi pa koleji ya Imperial, mu mzinda wa London ku England anati, madzi ndi “chimodzi mwa zinthu zofufuzidwa kwambiri mwa makemikolo onse, ndipo ndi ovutabe kuwamvetsetsa.” Magazini yotchedwa New Scientist inati: “Madzi ndi chinthu chodziŵika kwambiri padziko lapansi m’gulu la zinthu zonse zamadzimadzi, komanso ndiwo ali odabwitsa kwambiri.”

Dr. Emsley analongosola kuti ngakhale kuti madzi si opangidwa movuta, “palibe chinthu china chimene chimachita zinthu zovuta kumvetsa ngati madzi.” Mwachitsanzo, iye anati: “mpangidwe wa madzi umene chizindikiro chake ndi H₂0 uyenera kukhala mpweya, . . . koma n’zodabwitsa kuti madzi si ali mumpangidwe wa mpweya. Kuphatikizanso apo, akaundana . . . , amayandama m’malo mwakuti amire,” monga mmene anayenera kuchitira. Ponenapo pankhani ya zodabwitsa zimenezi, Dr. Paul E. Klopsteg, amene kale anali pulezidenti wa bungwe lasayansi lotchedwa American Association for the Advancement of Science, anati:

“Zikuoneka kuti madzi anapangidwa mwapadera kwambiri kuti nyama za m’madzi monga nsomba zikhale ndi moyo. Taganizirani kukanakhala kuti madzi sayandama akaundana. Madziwo akanamangoundana kufikira pansi pa nyanja komanso kupha zamoyo zonse za m’nyanja” Dr. Klopsteg ananena kuti khalidwe la madzi lodabwitsali lili “chisonyezero chakuti kwinakwake kuli maganizo a nzeru zakuya ndiponso okhala ndi cholinga amene akugwira ntchito m’chilengedwe chonse.”

Malingana ndi magazini yotchedwa New Scientist, tsopano ofufuza akuganiza kuti akudziŵa chifukwa chimene madzi ali ndi khalidwe lodabwitsa chotere. Iwo akonza njira yoyamba yamasamu yomwe imasonyeza molondola zimene madzi amachita akamafufuma. Ofufuzawo anaona kuti “chinsinsi chake chagona pa kutalikirana kwa ma atomu a okusijeni amene amapanga madzi.”

Kodi zimenezi si zodwabwitsadi? Anthu akulephera kumvetsa za kamolekyu kodelereka zedi. Komanso tangoganizani kuti mbali yaikulu ya kulemera kwathupi lathuli ndi madzi omwewo! Kodi inunso mukuona kudabwitsa kwa molekyu imeneyi, yokhala ndi ma atomu atatu ndi tizidutswa tiŵiri tofunikira totchedwa elementi, kukhala umboni wakuti kwinakwake kuli “maganizo anzeru zakuya ndiponso okhala n’cholinga amene akugwira ntchito”? Komatu, molekyu ya madzi ndi yaing’ono kwambiri ndiponso yosalowanalowana ngati mamolekyu ena.

Mamolekyu Ocholowana Zedi

Mamolekyu ena ali ndi ma atomu masauzande ambiri opezeka m’zinthu 88 zimene zili maziko a chinthu chilichonse m’chilengedwe ndiponso zimene zimapangika mwachilengedwe padziko lapansi. Mwachitsanzo, molekyu ya DNA (chidule cha deoxyribonucleic acid), imene muli chidziŵitso chokhudza chibadwa cha zamoyo zonse, ingathe kukhala ndi ma atomu mamiliyoni ambiri a maziko a zinthu zosiyanasiyana!

Ngakhale kuti DNA n’chinthu chocholowana motere, kukula kwake moizungulira ndi mamilimita 0.0000025 okha basi, choncho ndi yaing’ono kwambiri kwakuti siingaoneke ndi maso popanda kugwiritsa ntchito maikulosikopu yamphamvu kwambiri. Mmene chinkafika chaka cha 1944 m’pamene asayansi anatulukira kuti DNA ndiyo imachititsa munthu kuti atengere magazi a makolo ake. Zimene anatulukirazi zinapangitsa kuti pakhale kafukufuku wadzaoneni wofuna kupeza zimene zili mu molekyu yocholowana kwambiriyi.

Komatu, DNA ndiponso madzi ndi zinthu ziŵiri zokha pa mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya mamolekyu amene amapanga zinthu. Ndiye popeza kuti pali mamolekyu ambiri amene ali m’zinthu zamoyo ndi zopanda moyo, kodi tiyenera kunena kuti mwinamwake pali kusiyana kochepa kwambiri, kapena mpata wochepa, pakati pa zinthu zamoyo ndi zopanda moyo?

Kwanthaŵi yaitali, anthu ambiri akhala akukhulupirira kuti zilidi motero. “Chiyembekezo chakuti kudziŵa zambiri zasayansi ya zamoyo ndi zamankhwala kungatseke mpatawu chinatchulidwa mwachindunji ndi mabuku osiyanasiyana m’ma 1920 ndi 1930,” analongosola motero katswiri wina wa sayansi ya zamoyo zosaoneka ndi maso wotchedwa Michael Denton. Komabe, kodi m’kupita kwanthaŵi chimene chinatulukiridwadi n’chiyani?

Moyo N’ngwapadera Ndipo Si Wofanana ndi Chilichonse

Ngakhale kuti asayansi anali kuganiza kuti pakati pa zinthu zamoyo ndi zinthu zopanda moyo apezapo zinthu zina zogwirizanitsira mpata uja, kapena kuti apezapo mipata ingapo yaing’ono kwambiri yotsatizana, Denton anati kutulukira kuti mpata ulipodi “kunachitika pambuyo pa kutulukiridwa kwa sayansi ya zamoyo zosaoneka ndi maso. Sayansi imeneyi anaitulukira kumayambiriro  kwa zaka za m’ma 1950 ndipo inasintha zinthu.” Pofotokoza mfundo yodabwitsa kwambiri imene tsopano asayansi aitulukira, Denton anapitiriza kulongosola kuti:

“Tsopano tikudziŵa kuti pali mpata pakati pa zamoyo ndi zopanda moyo, komanso tikudziŵa kuti mpatawu n’ngochititsa chidwi kwambiri komanso ndiwo chimake cha mipata ya m’chilengedwe. Pali kusiyana kwakukulu kwambiri pakati pa kachidutswa ka zinthu zamoyo kotchedwa selo ndi kachidutswa ka zinthu zocholowana kwambiri zopanda moyo, monga ilili mibulu yamchere kapena mbulu wa madzi oundana.”

Zimenezi sizikutanthauza kuti kupanga molekyu n’kosavuta. Buku lotchedwa Molecules to Living Cells limalongosola kuti “kupanga tizigawo tam’mamolekyu aang’ono n’kovuta kwambiri.” Ndiye likuwonjezera kuti, kupanga mamolekyu otere “ndi kosavuta poyerekezera ndi ntchito imene mwina inatsatirapo kuti pakhale selo loyamba la moyo.”

Maselo angathe kukhala amoyo paokha monga zamoyo zokhala pazokha, monga mmene kalili kachilombo kotchedwa bakiteriya, kapenanso angathe kukhala mbali ya chamoyo chokhala ndi maselo ambiri, monga mmene alili munthu. Pangafunike maselo 500 aakulu bwino kuti afanane ndi kadontho kosonyeza kupuma kamene kali pamapeto pa mawu ano. Motero sizodabwitsa kuti ntchito za selo sizingaoneke ndi maso okha. Kodi nanga n’chiyani chimavumbulidwa akagwiritsa ntchito makina oonera zinthu zazing’ono otchedwa maikulosikopu poonera selo limodzi lokha la m’thupi la munthu?

Kodi Selo Linakhalako Mwamwayi Kapena Linachita Kukonzedwa?

Choyamba n’chakuti, munthu sangalephere kudabwa poona kucholowana kwa maselo a zinthu zamoyo. Wolemba za sayansi wina anati: “Kuti selo limodzi lodelereka kwambiri likule bwino pamafunika kuti mankhwala amene amakhala m’kati mwake atenthetsane nthaŵi makumi zikwi zambiri, m’njira yandondomeko yolongosoka.” Iye anafunsa kuti: “Kodi, zimatheka bwanji kuti m’kaselo kakang’ono kamodzi chabe, muchitike zimenezi nthaŵi 20,000 zosiyanasiyana?”

Michael Denton anayerekezera selo laling’ono kwambiri ndi “kafakitale kakang’ono kokhala ndi timainjini zikwizikwi tocholowana zedi, ndipo tonse pamodzi tili ndi ma atomu okwana mamiliyoni masauzande 100. Ndipo palibe makina aliwonse amene anthu apangapo amene ali ocholowana kufika pamenepa ndipo palibe chinthu chopanda moyo chimene chingafanane ndi zimenezi.”

Asayansi akudabwabe ndi kucholowana kwa selo, ndipo nyuzipepala yotchedwa  The New York Times ya pa February 15, 2000, inati: “Akatswiri a sayansi ya zamoyo akamadziŵa bwino maselo a zinthu zamoyo, m’pamenenso amagwa ulesi kuti ayese kudziŵa ntchito zonse za maselowa. Maselo ambiri a munthu ndi aang’ono kwambiri mwakuti sangaoneke, komatu nthaŵi iliyonse majini 30,000 mwa majini 100,000 amene amakhala m’maselo amatsekuka ndi kutsekeka, poyeretsa seloyo kapena poyankha mauthenga ochokera kumaselo ena.”

Magazini ya Times inafunsa kuti: “Kodi makina aang’ono komanso ocholowana chonchi angapendedwe bwanji? Ngakhale anthu atachita khama lodabwitsa n’kudziŵa bwino selo limodzi la munthu, ndiye kuti kwatsalabe maselo ena a mitundu yosiyasiyana pafupifupi 200 amene ali m’thupi la munthu.”

Magazini yotchedwa Nature, inalemba m’nkhani yakuti “Real Engines of Creation,” kuti, atulukira timainjini tokhala m’selo iliyonse la thupi. Timainjini timeneti timazungulira kuti tipange mankhwala otchedwa adenosine triphosphate, amene amapereka mphamvu zoyendetsera maselo. Wasayansi wina anang’ung’udza kuti: “Kodi tikadzakhoza kupanga makina angati molekyu, ofanana ndi makina amene timapeza m’mamolekyu am’maselo, tidzakwanitsa kuchita chiyani?”

Tangoganizirani za mphamvu ya selo yochita zinthu mwaluso! Chidziŵitso chimene chili m’molekyu yotchedwa DNA ya m’selo limodzi chabe la m’thupi lathu n’chotha kudzaza pafupifupi mapepala aakulu ngati lino okwana miliyoni imodzi! Kuwonjeza apo, nthaŵi iliyonse selo ikagaŵanika n’kupanga ina yatsopano, chidziŵitso chofananacho chimapita ku selo yatsopanoyo. Kodi mukuganiza kuti selo iliyonse mwa maselo 100 thililiyoni amene ali m’thupi mwanu inapatsidwa bwanji chidziŵitso chimenechi? Kodi zinachitika mwamwayi kapena kodi anazichititsa ndi katswiri wapamwamba kwambiri waluso?

N’zotheka kuti nanunso mwagwira mfundo imene katswiri wa sayansi ya zamoyo Russell Charles Artist anagwira. Iye anati: “Tikapanda kunena motsimikiza ndiponso mogwira mtima kuti nzeru ndiponso maganizo okhala kwinakwake ndiwo analenga selo timathedwa nzeru ndiponso timasoŵa mayankho pofuna kumvetsa chiyambi cha selo ndiponso mmene limagwirira ntchito.”

Dongosolo Lodabwitsa la Zinthu

Zaka za m’mbuyomo, Kirtley F. Mather, amene panthaŵiyo anali pulofesa wa sayansi ya miyala pa Harvard University, anagwira mfundo yotsatirayi: “Sitikhala m’chilengedwe chimene zinthu zimachitika mwamwayi koma timakhala m’chilengedwe chotsatira Lamulo ndiponso Dongosolo. Kayendetsedwe kake n’kabwino kwambiri ndipo zimenezi ziyenera kulemekezedwa zedi. Taganizirani za dongosolo lodabwitsa la masamu limene lili m’chilengedwe limene limatitheketsa kuika zinthu zokhala ndi ma atomu amaziko m’malo ake oyenera pa ndandanda ya mitundu ya maziko a zinthu.”

Tatiyeni tione mwachidule “dongosolo lodabwitsa la masamu” limeneli. Pa mitundu ya maziko a zinthu * odziŵika n’kale lomwe pali golide, siliva, kopa, tini, ndi ayironi. Maziko ena a zinthu otchedwa Arsenic, Bismuth, ndi antimony anawatulukira ndi asayansi yakale ya za mankhwala yotchedwa alchemy m’Nyengo Zapakati, ndipo pambuyo pake m’ma 1700, anapezanso mitundu yambiri ya maziko a zinthu. Mu 1863 makina otchedwa spectroscope, amene amatha kusiyanitsa maonekedwe osiyanasiyana a mitundu, omwe mtundu uliwonse wa maziko a zinthu umatulutsa, anawagwiritsa ntchito potulukira indium, amene ali maziko a zinthu a nambala 63 kutulukiridwa.

Panthaŵi imeneyo katswiri wa ku Russia wa sayansi ya mankhwala wotchedwa Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev anatsimikizira kuti maziko a zinthu sanapangidwe mwachisawawa. Potsiriza, pa March 18, 1869, nkhani yolongosola kufufuza kwake ya mutu wakuti “An Outline of the Sysytem of the  Elements” (Chidule cha Dongosolo la Maziko a Zinthu) anaiŵerenga pamaso pa anthu a m’bungwe la zamankhwala lotchedwa Russian Chemical Society. M’nkhaniyo iye anati “Ndikulakalaka nditayambitsa njira inayake yosayendera mwayi koma yoyendera mfundo yotsimikizika ndiponso yolondola kwambiri.”

M’kalata yotchuka imeneyi, Mendeleyev analosera kuti: “Tiyenerabe kuyembekezera kudzatulukira mitundu yambiri yosadziŵika ya maziko a zinthu; mwachitsanzo, yofanana ndi aluminium ndi silicon, yomwe ndi mitundu ya maziko a zinthu imene kulemera kwa ma atomu ake ndi 65 kapena 75.” Mendeleyev anasiya mipata kaamba ka mitundu ina 16 ya maziko a zinthu. Atam’funsa kuti apereke umboni wa ulosi wakewo, iye anayankha kuti: “Sindiyenera kupereka umboni uliwonse. Malamulo a m’chilengedwe n’ngosiyana ndi malamulo a galamala, chifukwa savomereza zinthu zina n’kuletsa zina.” Iye anawonjezeranso kuti: “Ndikutha kuona kuti mitundu ina ya maziko a zinthu imene ndikuiganizira ikadzatulukiridwa, anthu ambiri adzayamba kutimvera.”

Zimenezo ndizo zinachitikadi! “M’zaka 15 zotsatira,” ikutero Encyclopedia Americana, “kutulukiridwa kwa mitundu ya maziko a zinthu yotchedwa gallium, scandium ndi germanium, imene ili yofanana kwambiri ndi mitundu imene Mendeleyev analosera, kunachititsa kuti ndandanda yosonyeza zinthu zimenezi mwadongosolo ivomerezedwe kuti n’njolondola ndipo zimenezi zinatchukitsa amene anaitulukirayo.” Pofika koyambirira kwa zaka za 1900, mitundu yonse ya maziko a zinthu zimene zilipo inali itatulukiridwa.

Mwachionekere, monga mmene ananenera Elmer W. Maurer, wasayansi ya zamankhwala ndiponso wofufuza zinthu, “ndandanda yolongosoka bwino ngati imeneyi singakhaleko mwamwayi.” Ponenapo ngati kuli kotheka kuti ndondomeko yogwirizana bwino ya maziko a zinthu inangochitika mwamwayi, pulofesa wa sayansi ya zamankhwala John Cleveland Cothran anati: “Chifukwa chakuti maziko a zinthu onse amene [Mendeleyev] analosera alipo, ndipo anawapezadi, ndiponso chifukwa chakuti zinthu zimenezi n’nzofanana kwambiri ndi mmene anazilongosolera, n’kwachidziŵikire kuti sizinachitike mwamwayi. Mfundo yaikulu imene iye anaitchula sitchedwa kuti ‘Dongosolo Lochitika Mwamwayi.’ Mmalomwake, imatchedwa kuti ‘Dongosolo Lochitika Motsatira Lamulo.’”

Kuphunzira mozama za maziko a zinthu ndi mmene amaphatikizirana n’kupanga zinthu zonse zimene zili m’chilengedwe kunapangitsa katswiri wina wotchuka wa sayansi ya zachilengedwe wotchedwa P.A.M. Dirac, amene anali pulofesa wa masamu pa yunivesite ya Cambridge, kunena kuti: “Zimene munthu anganene pamenepa n’zakuti Mulungu ndi katswiri wapamwamba wa masamu ndipo anazama nawo n’kufika pamapeto, ndipo anagwiritsa ntchito masamu apamwamba koopsa popanga chilengedwe.”

N’zoona kuti n’kochititsa chidwi kwambiri kuonetsetsa zinthu zazing’ono kwambiri zosatha kuoneka ndi maso monga ma atomu, mamolekyu, ndi maselo amoyo ndiponso kuona milalang’amba ya nyenyezi yaikulu kwadzaoneni imene ili kutali zedi kwakuti maso paokha sangaoneko! Kuonetsetsa zinthu zoterezi kumachititsa nthumanzi. Kodi inuyo panokha zimakukhudzani bwanji? Kodi mukamaona zinthu zoterezi mumaganizira chiyani? Kodi mumaona zinthu zimene maso anu paokha sangathe?

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Bokosi/Zithunzi patsamba 5]

Liŵiro Lakuti Maso Sangaone

Chifukwa chakuti kavalo n’ngothamanga kwambiri, amuna a m’zaka za m’ma 1800 ankakangana pankhani yakuti mwina nthaŵi inayake mapazi ake onse amakhala m’malere. Pamapeto pake, mu 1872, Eadweard Muybridge anayamba kuyesa kujambula zithunzi zofuna kutsimikiza nkhaniyi ndipo pambuyo pake anaterodi. Iye anakonza njira yojambulira mafilimu omwe n’ngoyamba kuonetsa zinthu zili paliŵiro.

Muybridge anandandalika makamera okwana 24 motsatizana ndipo mwapatalipatali ndithu. Ndiye anamangirira kachingwe ku batani lojambulira la kamera iliyonse. Kachingweko anakadutsitsa pa msewu woyendamo akavalo ochita mpikisano, kuti akavalowo akamadutsa, azikoka ndi kukhethemula mabatani ojambulira aja. Poona zithunzi zimene zinkajambulidwazo anatulukira kuti panthaŵi ina kavalo yense ankakhaladi ali m’malere.

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Mwachilolezo cha George Eastman House

[Chithunzi patsamba 7]

Kodi n’chifukwa chiyani madzi oundana amayandama m’malo momira?

[Chithunzi patsamba 7]

Molekyu ya DNA ndi yaikulu mamilimita 0.0000025 okha moizungulira, koma chidziŵitso chimene imakhala nacho chingadzaze masamba miliyoni

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Chifanifani cha molekyu ya DNA chopangidwa ndi kompyuta: Donald Struthers/Tony Stone Images

[Chithunzi patsamba 8]

Mu selo liliyonse la m’thupi (pali maselo okwana mathililiyoni 100) mumakhala mankhwala amene amatenthetsana nthaŵi zikwi makumi ambiri m’njira yolongosoka bwino

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Copyright Dennis Kunkel, University of Hawaii

[Chithunzi patsamba 9]

Mendeleyev, amene anali katswiri wa ku Russia wa sayansi ya zamankhwala anatsimikizira mfundo yakuti maziko a zinthu sanalengedwe mwachisawawa

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Mwachilolezo cha bungwe la National Library of Medicine