Ingabe Izakhi Zazivelela?

“YONKE into eseMkhathini, ngisho nenkanyezi ekude kunazo zonke, yakhiwa ngama-athomu,” kuchaza i-Encyclopedia of Stars & Atoms. I-athomu ngalinye lincane kakhulu alibonakali, kodwa uma ehlangene ndawonye enza izakhi zamakhemikhali esizijwayele. Ezinye zalezi zakhi ziyizinto eziqinile esikwaziyo ukuzibona, ezinye zingamagesi angabonakali. Ingabe ukuba khona kwazo zonke izakhi zamakhemikhali ezinjalo kungathiwa kwazenzekela?

Izakhi 1 Kuya Ku-92

Nakuba i-hydrogen iyi-athomu elilula kunawo wonke, inika izinkanyezi ezinjengelanga amandla futhi ibalulekile ekuphileni. I-athomu le-hydrogen line-proton eyodwa kuyi-nucleus yalo ne-electron eyodwa ezungeza leyo nucleus. Ezinye izakhi zamakhemikhali njengesikhutha, umoya-mpilo, igolide nesigidi, zakhiwa ama-athomu anama-electron amaningi azungeza i-nucleus enama-proton nama-neutron amaningi.

Eminyakeni engu-450 edlule, zazingu-12 kuphela izakhi zamakhemikhali ezazaziwa. Njengoba kwakutholakala ezinye, ososayensi baphawula ukuhleleka kwazo okungokwemvelo. Lapho lezi zakhi zibekwa eshadini ngezinhlu, ososayensi bathola ukuthi izakhi ezisohlwini olulodwa zazinezici ezifanayo. Kodwa kwakukhona izikhala eshadini, ezazimelela izakhi ezingaziwa. Lokhu kwaholela usosayensi waseRussia uDmitry Mendeleyev ekubeni abikezele ukuthi kukhona esinye isakhi esingunombolo 32, i-germanium, washo nombala waso, isisindo, ukuqina nezinga lokushisa esincibilika kulo. Incwadi yesayensi ka-1995 ethi Chemistry iphawula ukuthi “ukubikezela [kukaMendeleyev] ngezakhi ezingakatholakali—i-gallium ne-scandium—kwakunembe kakhulu.”

Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ososayensi babikezela ukuthi kukhona ezinye izakhi ezingaziwa nezici zazo. Ekugcineni zatholakala zonke lezo zakhi. Azisekho izikhala eshadini. Ukuhleleka okungokwemvelo kwezakhi kusekelwe enanini lama-proton elikuyi-nucleus yama-athomu azo, kusukela esakhini esingunombolo 1, i-hydrogen, kuqhubeke kuze kufike esakhini sokugcina ngokuvamile esingokwemvelo emhlabeni, esingunombolo 92, i-uranium. Ingabe lokhu kwamane kwaqondana?

Cabangela futhi izinhlobonhlobo eziningi zezakhi zamakhemikhali. Igolide nesigidi (mercury) yizakhi ezinemibala ecwebezelayo. Esinye siqinile, esinye siwuketshezi. Nokho, ziyalandelana njengonombolo 79 no-80. I-athomu legolide linama-electron angu-79, ama-proton angu-79 nama-neutron angu-118. I-athomu lesigidi lilidlula nge-electron eyodwa, i-proton eyodwa bese liba nenani elicishe lifane lama-neutron.

 Ingabe kwamane kwazenzekela ukuthi ushintsho oluncane ekuhlelekeni kwezinhlayiya zama-athomu luveze izakhi ezihlukahlukene kanje? Kuthiwani ngamandla ahlanganisa izinhlayiya zama-athomu? I-Encyclopedia of Stars & Atoms iyachaza: “Kusukela entweni encane kunazo zonke kuya emthaleni omkhulu kunayo yonke, yonke into eseMkhathini ilandela imithetho echazwa imithetho yemvelo.” Cabanga ukuthi bekuyokwenzekani uma bekungashintsha owodwa waleyo mithetho. Ngokwesibonelo, kuthiwani uma bekungashintshwa amandla enza ukuba ama-electron ahlale ezungeza i-nucleus ye-athomu?

Amandla Emvelo Avunyelaniswe Kahle

Cabanga ukuthi bekuzoba namiphi imiphumela ukube amandla kazibuthe ayelula. Encwadini yakhe ethi Star Watch, uDkt. David Block uthi: “Ama-electron abeyohlukana nama-athomu.” Bekuyosho ukuthini lokho? Uyanezela: “Besiyoba nomkhathi onamakhemikhali angathakeki!” Yeka indlela esingabonga ngayo ngemithetho ebekiwe ethaka amakhemikhali! Ngokwesibonelo, ama-athomu amabili e-hydrogen ahlangana ne-athomu elilodwa lomoya-mpilo akhe ingqamuzana lamanzi ayigugu.

Amandla kazibuthe cishe mancane ngokuphindwe kayikhulu kunamandla enuzi agcina ama-athomu enuzi endawonye. Bekuyokwenzekani uma bekungashintshwa lesi silinganiso? Ososayensi uJohn Barrow noFrank Tipler bayachaza: “Uma umfutho wamandla enuzi nakazibuthe olinganiselwe ubungahluka kancane nje kulokhu oyikho, ama-athomu esikhutha abengeke abe khona.” Ngaphandle kwesikhutha bekungeke kube khona ukuphila. Ama-athomu esikhutha akha amaphesenti angu-20 esisindo sazo zonke izinto eziphilayo.

Okunye okubalulekile amandla kazibuthe uma eqhathaniswa namandla adonsela phansi. Umagazini i-New Scientist uyachaza: “Ushintsho oluncane kakhulu emandleni adonsela phansi nakazibuthe, belungashintsha izinkanyezi ezinjengeLanga zibe ama-blue giant [ashisa kakhulu ukuba kungaphilwa ngaphansi kwawo] noma ama-red dwarf [angashisi ngokwanele ukuba angasekela ukuphila].”

Amanye amandla, amandla enuzi alula, alawula izinga lokuxubana kwenuzi elangeni. Isazi se-physics uFreeman Dyson siyachaza: “Alula ngokwanele ukuba i-hydrogen eselangeni ishe kancane kancane.” Ziningi ezinye izibonelo ezinganikezwa ezibonisa ukuthi ukuphila kwethu kuncike kanjani emithethweni elinganiswe ngokucophelela nezimo ezitholakala emkhathini. Umlobi wesayensi uProfesa Paul Davies waqhathanisa le mithetho yomkhathi nezimo kanye nezinkinobho wayesethi: “Kubonakala sengathi izinkinobho ezihlukahlukene kufanele zivunyelaniswe kahle ukuze umkhathi usebenze ngendlela ezokwenza ukuphila kuchume.”

Esikhathini eside ngaphambi kokuba uSir Isaac Newton athole amandla adonsela phansi, iBhayibheli labhekisela emithethweni enjalo emisiwe. Indoda uJobe yabuzwa: “Nguwena yini owamisa imithetho ebusa amazulu, noma owanquma imithetho yemvelo emhlabeni?” (Jobe 38:33, The New English Bible) Eminye imibuzo ethobisayo yayithi, “Wawukuphi, lapho ngasekela umhlaba, na?” nothi, “Ngubani owanquma izilinganiso zawo, ngokuba uyakwazi phela!”—Jobe 38:4, 5.

[Ibhokisi ekhasini 6]

IZAKHI EZIBALULEKILE

Izakhi zamakhemikhali i-hydrogen, umoya-mpilo nesikhutha zenza cishe amaphesenti angu-98 ama-athomu asemzimbeni wakho. Bese kuba khona i-nitrogen, eyenza amanye amaphesenti angu-1,4. Ezinye izakhi zincane kakhulu kodwa-ke zibalulekile ukuze kube khona ukuphila.

[Ishadi/Umdwebo ekhasini 6, 7]

(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)

 Ngesikhathi sokunyathelisa, ososayensi bese bethole isakhi 93 nezinye ezingalé kwaso, kuhlanganise nesakhi 118. Njengoba bekulindelekile, lezi zakhi zisangena khaxa ohlelweni lweshadi lezakhi.

[Umthombo]

Umthombo: Los Alamos National Laboratory

Igama lesakhi Uphawu Inombolo yama-athomu (inani lama-proton)

hydrogen H 1

helium He 2

lithium Li 3

beryllium Be 4

boron B 5

carbon C 6

nitrogen N 7

oxygen O 8

fluorine F 9

neon Ne 10

sodium Na 11

magnesium Mg 12

aluminum Al 13

silicon Si 14

phosphorus P 15

sulfur S 16

chlorine Cl 17

argon Ar 18

potassium K 19

calcium Ca 20

scandium Sc 21

titanium Ti 22

vanadium V 23

chromium Cr 24

manganese Mn 25

iron Fe 26

cobalt Co 27

nickel Ni 28

copper Cu 29

zinc Zn 30

gallium Ga 31

germanium Ge 32

arsenic As 33

selenium Se 34

bromine Br 35

krypton Kr 36

rubidium Rb 37

strontium Sr 38

yttrium Y 39

zirconium Zr 40

niobium Nb 41

molybdenum Mo 42

technetium Tc 43

ruthenium Ru 44

rhodium Rh 45

palladium Pd 46

silver Ag 47

cadmium Cd 48

indium In 49

tin Sn 50

antimony Sb 51

tellurium Te 52

iodine I 53

xenon Xe 54

cesium Cs 55

barium Ba 56

lanthanum La 57

cerium Ce 58

praseodymium Pr 59

neodymium Nd 60

promethium Pm 61

samarium Sm 62

europium Eu 63

gadolinium Gd 64

terbium Tb 65

dysprosium Dy 66

holmium Ho 67

erbium Er 68

thulium Tm 69

ytterbium Yb 70

lutetium Lu 71

hafnium Hf 72

tantalum Ta 73

tungsten W 74

rhenium Re 75

osmium Os 76

iridium Ir 77

platinum Pt 78

gold Au 79

mercury Hg 80

thallium Tl 81

lead Pb 82

bismuth Bi 83

polonium Po 84

astatine At 85

radon Rn 86

francium Fr 87

radium Ra 88

actinium Ac 89

thorium Th 90

protactinium Pa 91

uranium U 92

neptunium Np 93

plutonium Pu 94

americium Am 95

curium Cm 96

berkelium Bk 97

californium Cf 98

einsteinium Es 99

fermium Fm 100

mendelevium Md 101

nobelium No 102

lawrencium Lr 103

rutherfordium Rf 104

dubnium Db 105

seaborgium Sg 106

bohrium Bh 107

hassium Hs 108

meitnerium Mt 109

110

111

112

114

116

118

[Umdwebo]

(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)

Ingabe uhlelo nokuvumelana kwezakhi eshadini lezakhi kubonisa ukuthi zazivelela nje noma zaklanywa ngokuhlakanipha?

I-athomu le-“helium”

I-“electron”

I-“proton”

I-“neutron”

[Umdwebo/Isithombe ekhasini 7]

(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)

Yini ebangela ukuvunyelaniswa okunembe kangaka kwalezi zinhlobo ezine zamandla emvelo?

AMANDLA KAZIBUTHE

AMANDLA ENUZI ANOMFUTHO

AMANDLA ADONSELA PHANSI

AMANDLA ENUZI ALULA

I-“molecule” yamanzi

I-“nucleus” ye-athomu

I-“blue giant”

I-“red dwarf”

Ilanga